“People outside have the idea that knowledge should be shared. That’s what universities are built around. But at Zuni we don’t think that way. Some knowledge should be protected and not shared. There are things in Zuni you can know, and things you can’t. And there are certain people who deserve to be the keepers of that knowledge. It’s a privilege, and the rest of us respect them for that.”-Jim Enote, the director of the A:shiwi A:wan Museum and Heritage Center
Pre-Reading Discussion Questions
1. Mr. Enote states that “… some knowledge should be protected and not shared.”
1. Give reasons why you agree or disagree with this statement, then provide examples of the type information that should be shared or kept secret within a culture.
2. Who are the people who deserve to be the “keepers of knowledge”?
3. Are there secrets in your culture? Explain why or why not?
The Zuni: A Concise History
1. The true origins of the Zuni people are unknown. However, they are believed to be the descendants of the Ancient Pueblo People who resided in the areas of New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado and Utah for centuries. As with most American Indian people, the Spaniards were among the first recorded as making contact with the Zuni. In 1539, a Spanish expedition party led by Moorish slave Estevancio encountered the Zuni, and they killed him. 2. In 1540, Fransico Vasquez Coronado led a military expedition into New Mexico, where a major battle between the Zuni and the Spaniards took place. The Zunis almost won the battle, which lasted from January until March. Finally, the Spaniards gained control and massacred Zuni men, women and children. In 1598 Juan de Onate, Spanish Governor of New Mexico made his first visit to the Zuni lands. In the 1629 A Catholic missionary was established at Hawikku. 3. In 1680 the Zunis revolted and burned the mission, and built a village and strengthened its defenses against another attack from the Spanish. Then in 1692 Don Diego de Vargas re-conquered New Mexico, after which the Zunis settled all their villages into one area. After the Mexican-American War, which lasted from 1846-1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed which made New Mexico and the Zunis part of the United States. 4. In 1990, President Bush signed a Public Law entitled the Zuni Land Conservation Act that was designed to settle Zuni claims against the United States for damages to Zuni trust lands. The Zuni received a cash settlement for their lost territory. 5. Today, the Zuni have a both a Government and a Tribal Council to serve the Pueblo. The Zuni hold their educational programs as very important for the development of their children. They also have enterprises such as Zuni Technologies, and Zuni Skies Unlimited Enterprises which provides cell phone service to Arizona. 6. In addition there is also the Zuni Entrepreneurial Enterprises (Zee) which provides vocational training and employment opportunities, and independent living-skills for developmentally disabled adults within the Zuni Reservation and elsewhere in southern McKinley County. There are also many local businesses and tribal programs, which serve the Zuni community. It is their strong cultural and communal bonds that have kept and continue to keep them strong as a people.
Exercise 1 Vocabulary Practice (Inference)
Directions: The following vocabulary words are from the reading selection you’ve just finished. Find and highlight each of the following words in the paragraphs indicated in parenthesis, then infer the meanings from the context. Highlight any additional words that you aren’t familiar with and do the same with those.
1. The true origins of the Zuni people are unknown. (1)
2. In 1539, a Spanish expedition party led by Moorish slave Estevancio encountered the Zuni. (1)
3. Finally, the Spaniards gained control and massacred Zuni men, women and children. (2)
4. In the 1629 A Catholic missionary was established at Hawikku. (2)
5. In 1990, President Bush signed a Public Law entitled the Zuni Land Conservation Act that was designed to settle Zuni claims. (4)
6. They also have enterprises such as Zuni Technologies, and Zuni Skies. (5)
7.The program provides vocational training and employment opportunities. (6)
8. It is their strong cultural and communal bonds that have kept and continue to keep them strong as a people. (6)
Exercise 2 Questions for Comprehension and Reflection
1. What was Franciso Vasquez Coronado’s reason for invading the Zuni territory? Why did he kill the women and the children?
2. Why do you think that a Catholic mission was established?
3. Discuss the possible reasons for the Zuni revolt against the mission.
Exercise 3 Research Activities
Directions: Choose one of the following questions and present the results of your research.
1. Ancient Pueblo People
2. Fransico Vasquez Coronado
3. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
4. Captain Monroe M. Parson
5. Councilwoman Shelly Chimoni
6. Zuni Skies Unlimited Enterprises
Sources: Smithsonian Wikipedia Amazon: An outline of the documentary history of the Zuni tribe
Zuni Myth: Coyote Steals the Sun and Moon
Coyote is a bad hunter who never kills anything. Once he watched Eagle hunting rabbits, catching more rabbits than he could eat. Coyote thought, “I’ll team up with Eagle so I can have enough meat.” Coyote is always up to something.
“Friend”, Coyote said to Eagle, “We should hunt together. Two can catch more than one.” “Why not?” Eagle said, and so they began to hunt in partnership. Eagle caught many rabbits, but all Coyote caught was some little bugs. At this time, the world was still dark; the sun and moon had not yet been put in the sky. “Friend,” Coyote said, “No wonder I can’t catch anything; I can’t see. Do you know where we can get some light?” “You’re right, friend, there should be some light,” Eagle said. “I think there’s a little toward the west. Let’s try and find it.” And so they went looking for the sun and the moon. At last they came to a pueblo, where the Kachinas happened to be dancing. The people invited Eagle and Coyote to sit down and have something to eat while they watched the sacred dances. Seeing the power of the Kachinas, Eagle said, “I believe these are the people who have light.” Coyote who had been looking all around, pointed out two boxes, one large and one small, that the people opened whenever they wanted light. To produce a lot of light, they opened the big box that contained the sun. For less light, they opened the small box, which held the moon. Coyote nudged Eagle. “Did you see that? They have all the light we need in the big box. Let’s steal it.” “You may be right,” said Eagle. “Let’s wait until they finish dancing and then steal it.” After awhile the Kachinas went home to sleep. Eagle scooped up the large box and flew off. Coyote ran along trying to keep up, panting, his tongue hanging out. Soon he yelled up to Eagle, “Ho friend, let me carry the box a little way,” “No, no,” said Eagle, “you never do anything right.” They continued on for a stretch, and then Coyote started again. “Ho friend, it isn’t right for you to carry the box. You’re the chief, and I’m just Coyote, what will people think of me?” Eagle couldn’t stand any more pestering. Also, Coyote had asked him four times, and if someone asks four times, you better give him what he wants. Eagle said, “Go ahead and carry the box for a while. But promise not to open it.” “Oh sure, oh yes, I promise. They continued on until Eagle was far ahead and Coyote began to lag behind. “I wonder what the light looks like, inside there.” he said to himself. “Why don’t I take a peak? Probably there’s something extra in the box , something good that Eagle wants to keep to himself.” And Coyote opened the lid. Now not only was the sun inside, but the moon also. Eagle had put them both inside together, thinking that it would be easier to carry one box than two. As soon as Coyote opened the lid, the moon escaped, flying high into the sky. At once all the plants shriveled up and turned brown. Just as quickly, all the leaves fell off the trees. Meanwhile the sun flew out and rose into the sky. It drifted so far away into the sky that the peaches, squashes, and melons shriveled up with cold. Eagle flew back to see what had delayed Coyote. “You fool! Look what you’ve done!” he said. “You let the sun and moon escape, and now it’s cold.” Indeed it began to snow, and Coyote shivered. “Now your teeth are chattering,” Eagle said, “And it’s your fault that cold has come into the world.” It’s true. If it weren’t for Coyote’s curiosity and mischief making, we wouldn’t have winter; we could enjoy summer all the time.
Exercise 1. Vocabulary (Meanings)
Directions: The following sentences are from the story you’ve just read. Circle the best meaning of the underlined words.
1. Instead of working alone, Eagle and Coyote began to work in partnership.
a. being or working with another person
b. working alone
c. working with animals
2. Seeing the power of the Kachinas, Eagle said, “ I believe these are the people who have light”.
a. spiritual deities of certain Native American people.
b. European dolls.
c. Native American word for kitchen
3. At last they came to a pueblo where the Kachinas lived.
a. a place for horses
b. a piece of furniture
c. a group of tightly packed adobe Indian houses in New Mexico and Arizona
4. The people invited Eagle and Coyote to sit down and have something to eat while they watched the sacred dances.
a. a party for everyone
b. dances devoted to a deity or to some religious purpose
c. dance steps
5. Eagle scooped up the large box and flew off.
a. the act of putting down
b. the act of gathering or lifting with the arms or hands
c. a kind of dish
6. Coyote ran along trying to keep up, panting, his tongue hanging out.
a. to breathe or utter gaspingly
b. to laugh
c. to yell
7. Ho friend it isn’t right for you to carry the box. Eagle couldn’t stand any more pestering, so he finally gave him the box.
a. to leave alone
b. to climb
c. to harass with petty annoyances
Exercise 2. Writing Activity
Directions: Working in groups choose one (or more) of the topics below, and explain how they came to be. Use the idea from the myth, and your imagination! You may use the same characters from the Zuni story or make up your own. Write about a myth from your country. Gather as a group and read them to each other.
Topics Ideas: 1. Earthquakes 2. Hurricanes 3. Tornadoes 4. Volcanoes 5. Rainbows
Myth: The Spirit Wife
1. A young man was grieving because the beautiful wife whom he loved was dead. As he sat by the graveside weeping, he decided to follow her to the Land of the Dead. He made many prayer sticks and sprinkled sacred corn pollen. He waited until nightfall, when the spirit of his departed wife came out of the grave and sat beside him, She was not sad, but, smiling.
The spirit-maiden told her husband: “I am just leaving one life for another. Therefore do not weep for me.” “I cannot let you go,” said the young man, “ I love you so much that I will go with you to the Land of the Dead.” The spirit-wife tried to dissuade him, but could not. So at last she gave in to his wishes saying: “ if you must follow me, know that I shall be invisible to you as long as the sun shines. You must tie this red eagle feather to my hair. It will be visible in daylight, and if you want to come with me, you must follow the feather.”
The young man did as she said, and at daybreak, as the sun slowly began to light up the world, bathing the mountaintops in a pale light, the spirit-wife began to fade from his view. The lighter it became, the more the form of his wife dissolved and grew transparent, until at last it vanished altogether. But the red feather did not disappear. It waved before the young man, a mere arms length away, as if rising and falling on a dancer’s head. It began leading the way out of the village, moving through the streets, out into the cornfields, through a shallow stream, moving into the foothills of the mountains, leading the young husband ever westward toward the Land of the Dead.
The red feather moved swiftly, evenly, floating without effort over the roughest trails, and soon the young man had trouble following it. He grew tireder, and tireder, and finally was totally exhausted as the feather left him further behind. Then he called out panting: “Beloved wife, wait for me. I can’t run any longer.”
The red feather stopped, waiting for him to catch up, and when he did so, hastened on. For many days the young man traveled, following the feather, day after day, resting during the nights, when his spirit-bride would sometimes appear to him, speaking encouraging words. The trail became rougher and rougher every day. The days were long, the nights were short, and the young man grew wearier, and wearier, until at last he had hardly enough strength to set one foot before the other.
One day the trail led to a deep, almost bottomless chasm, and as the husband came to the edge, the red feather began to float away from him into nothingness. he reached out to grab it, but the feather was already beyond his reach, floating straight across the canyon, because spirits can fly through the air. The young man cried out: “wife, wait for me, I love you. Wait!” The husband tried to climb up but the rock walls were sheer, with nothing to hold on to. He found himself on a ledge barely wider than a thumb, and he could go neither forward or backward. He seemed that he was to fall into the abyss and be dashed into pieces.
His foot had already begun to slip, when a tiny squirrel scooted up the cliff chattering: “You young fool, do you think you have the wings of a bird, or the feet of a spirit? Hold on and I’ll help you.” The little creature reached into his cheek pouch and bought out a little seed, which he stuck into a crack in the wall. The little squirrel danced above the crack singing a sacred spiritual song. Out of the crack spouted a long slender stalk, with strong leaves and vine. The young man was able to cross over without any problem.On the other side of the canyon, the young man found the red feather waiting, dancing before him. The young man began to followed the feather once more.
At last the feather led him to a large, dark deep lake, and the feather plunged into the water to disappear below the surface. Then the husband knew that the spirit-land lay at the bottom of the lake. He was in despair because he could not follow the feather into the deep. In vain he called to his wife, but the surface of the lake remained undisturbed and calm. The lake, Land of the Dead had swallowed her up. The man buried his face in his hands and wept. All of a sudden, he felt the soft beating of wings on his back. He looked up and saw an owl hovering above him. The owl said: “Young man, why are you weeping?” The young man pointed to the lake saying: “My beloved wife is down there in the Land of the Dead, where I cannot follow her.” “I know poor man, Follow me to my house in the mountains where I will tell you what to do to see wife again.” The owl led the man to a cave in the mountains, where he was greeted by owl-men and owl-women, seated in a large room. The owl removed his cloak, and revealed himself as a man-like spirit, then, from a bundle in the wall, this mysterious being took a small bag, showing it to the man and saying: “ I will give this to you, but first I must instruct you in what you must and must not do.”
The young man snatched quickly for the bag, but the owl pulled it back saying: “Young man, if you cannot curb your eagerness, and your youthful desires, then even this medicine will be of no use to you!” “I promise to be patient,” said the young man. “Well, then” said the owl, “ this is a sleep medicine, that will make you fall into a deep sleep, and transport you to some other place. When you awake, you’ll walk towards the Morning Star, follow the trail to the middle anthill, where you will find your wife. As the sun rises, so she will rise in the flesh, a spirit no more, and you will live happily. But remember to curb your eagerness. Let not your desire to embrace and touch her get the better of you, for if you touch her before bringing her home to the pueblo of your birth, she will be lost to you forever.” Having finished this speech, the old owl-man blew some of the medicine into the young man’s face, who instantly fell asleep. Then all of the owl-men lifted him up and flew him to the middle of the road of the Morning Star. The old owl-man then flew to the bottom of the lake where the Land of the Dead was located.
There, he blew some of the sleep medicine into the faces of the guards who kept watch in the Land of the Dead, so they fell into a deep sleep. He then took the maiden-wife, and placed her next to her husband. When the husband awoke, he first saw the Morning Star, the middle anthill, then his wife still deep in slumber. When the wife woke up and saw her husband she said: “Truly your love for me is strong, stronger than love has ever been, otherwise we would not be here.” They got up and began to travel towards the pueblo of their birth. The young man did not forget the advice of the old owl-man, and did not touch his wife. Soon the wife became tired, and said: “ Let me sleep for awhile, and then we can walk the last short distance to our pueblo together.” The husband replied: “We will do as you say.” The wife went to sleep, and while gazing at her loveliness the husband reached out his hand and touched her.
She awoke instantly with a start, and looking at him, she began to weep, she said: “you loved me, but you did not love me enough; otherwise you would have waited. Now I shall die again.” And before his eyes her form faded and became transparent, until there was nothing in the place where she had just lain. The young man sank down in despair, burying his face in his hands, and ever after his mind wandered as his eyes stared vacantly.
Moral:
If the young man had controlled his eagerness, and had practiced patience and self-denial for only a short time, then death would have been overcome. There would be no journeying to the land below the lake, and no mourning for others lost. But then, if there were no death, men would crowd each other with more people on this earth than the earth could hold. then there would be hunger, and war, with people fighting over a tiny patch of earth, over an ear of corn, over a scrap of meat. So maybe what happened was for the best.
Exercise 1-Vocabulary Practice-Inference
Directions: The following sentences are from the myth you’ve just read. Try to guess the meanings of the words in bold. Highlight any additional words that you may not be familiar with and try to guess their meanings as well. Check your answers with your group members, then refer to your dictionary or thesaurus to confirm your guesses.
1. A young man was grieving because the beautiful wife whom he loved was dead.
2. The spirit-wife tried to dissuade him, but could not.
3. The lighter it became, the more the form of his wife dissolved and grew transparent, until at last it vanished altogether.
4. He grew tireder, and tireder, and finally was totally exhausted as the feather left him.
5. One day the trail led to a deep, almost bottomless chasm, and as the husband came to the edge.
6. He seemed that he was to fall into the abyss and be dashed into pieces.
7. He looked up and saw an owl hovering above him.
8. The owl removed his cloak, and revealed himself as a man-like spirit.
9. “Young man, if you cannot curb your eagerness.
10. As the sun rises, so she will rise in the flesh, a spirit no more, and you will live happily.
11. When the husband awoke, he first saw the Morning Star, the middle anthill, then his wife still deep in slumber.
12. The young man sank down in despair.
Exercise 2. Recalling the Content (True/False)
Directions: Read each of the following statements concerning the myth The Spirit Wife, and decide if it is true or false. If the statement is false, correct it. In each case, find the appropriate part in the myth to confirm your answer.
1. A young woman was grieving.
2. The young man could see his maiden wife all of the time.
3. The wife lead her husband to the Land of the Dead.
4. The only visible sign of his wife was a red feather.
5. The man never grew tired following his wife.
6. The trail lead him to a deep chasm, that he could not cross.
7. A tiny bird saved him from the chasm.
8. The feather lead him to a deep lake that he could not cross.
9. The husband saw an eagle.
10. He was told to drink tea if he wanted to see his wife again.
Exercise 3 Questions for Reflection and Discussion
1. Do you believe in life a life after death? If yes, describe what it would like. If no, describe what you think happens after death.
2. At the end of the myth, the storyteller presents us with a moral. The storyteller also adds, “…But then, if there were no death, men would crowd each other with more people on this earth than the earth could hold. then there would be hunger, and war, with people fighting over a tiny patch of earth, over an ear of corn, over a scrap of meat. So maybe what happened was for the best.” Can you think of any other consequences if people never died?
3. Compare the first Zuni myth (Coyote Steals the Sun and Moon) with this one (The Spirit Wife). What are some differences between the two? What are some similarities?
Teachers’ Guide and Answer Key
To Teachers: The goal of this material is to raise students’ awareness of the American Indian people living in the United States today, and to encourage learners to view Native Indians as an integral part of American society. My hope is that students will see the native people of this country as workers, students, professionals, parents, and leaders of their communities.
Activities The construction of the exercises makes the reading material more of a communicative activity, and helps students to better understand the content. There are various pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading tasks for each reading selection. Although the majority of the exercises are suggested for group work, especially during class, students can complete the activities independently as homework assignments. At the following class meeting, their responses can be used as the basis for group discussions. The research activities can also be completed individually or as collaborative group projects. I offer some suggestions for some of the activities throughout the lessons.
Language Skills: The target skills for the lessons are primarily reading and speaking, however, tasks for writing, and research activities are also included. These exercises are intended for ESL students, but everyone can use them. Although the reading level is high-intermediate to advanced, teachers can modify the material as needed for their level of learners.
Zuni Part I
Pre-Reading Discussion Questions ( Introduction)
Possible responses: 1. Agree: knowledge such as religious ceremonies, should not be shared with people outside of the tribe, because they will not have the same beliefs as the members, which might create disturbances among the tribal members. Disagree: In order to help non Indians understand the culture better, all knowledge needs to be shared with others.
2. Probably the elder members of the Zuni tribe, and the religious leaders, and Healers.
3. Students’ choice
The Zuni: A Concise History
Exercise 1 Vocabulary Practice (inference)
1. origins- n. the place where something begins.
2. expedition-n. a military campaign designed to achieve a specific objective in a foreign country.
3. massacred-v. kill a large number of people indiscriminately.
4. missionary-n. someone who attempts to convert others to a particular doctrine or program.
5. entitled-v. [ with obj. give (someone) a legal right or a just claim to receive or do something.
6. enterprises-n. [enterprise] a purposeful or industrious undertaking (especially one that requires effort or boldness).
7. vocational-adj. of or relating to a vocation or occupation; especially providing or undergoing training in special skills.
8. bonds -n.-an agreement.
Exercise 2 Questions for Comprehension and Reflection
Possible Answers 1. What was Francisco Vasquez Coronado’s reason for invading the Zuni territory? Why did he kill the women and the children? Vasquez was an explorer and like most of the other Spanish conquistadors, he was searching for land and any valuables. Many times the conquerors killed the women and children to keep the men in the tribe under control.
2. Why do you think that a Catholic mission was established? The Catholics wanted to convert the Zuni people, mistakenly thinking the Zuni religion and their way of worship was subordinate to Catholicism.
3. Discuss the possible reasons for the Zuni revolt against the mission. The Zuni revolted because the Spanish invaded their territory, and tried to force them into a way of life that was alien to the members.
4. What was the purpose of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo? After the Mexican-American War, which lasted from 1846-1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed which made New Mexico and the Zunis part of the United States.
5. Why did the Zuni receive a cash settlement from the U.S. government? In 1990, President Bush signed a Public Law entitled the Zuni Land Conservation Act that was designed to settle Zuni claims against the United States for damages to Zuni trust lands.
6. What type of government organization do the Zuni have today? They have both a Tribal Council with the Head Councilwoman Shelly Chimoni and a government body.
7. Are there any similarities in the Zuni culture today that were present in the culture during the 1500s? The Zuni still maintain their cultural beliefs, and communal bonds to remain strong as a people.
Zuni Myth: Coyote Steals the Sun and Moon
Exercise 1. Vocabulary (Meanings)
Sentences 1. a 2. a 3. c 4. b 5. b. 6. a 7. c
Exercise 2. Writing Activity Students’ choice.
Students’ choice.
Zuni Part II
Zuni Myth: The Spirit Wife
Exercise 1-Vocabulary Practice-Inference
1. [grieve] v. mourn, lament, sorrow.
2. dissuade v. discourage from, prevent from.
3. transparent adj. clear, see-through.
4. exhausted adj. tired-out, worn-out, weary.
5. chasm n. a deep fissure in the earth, abyss, canyon.
6. abyss n. a deep bottomless chasm, fissure, hole.
7. hovering [hover] v. be suspended, hang, float.
8. cloak n. an overgarment, typically sleeveless, that hangs loosely from the shoulders. cape, poncho, serape.
9. curb v. restrain, hold back, repress.
10.spirit n. soul, supernatural being.
11. slumber v. sleep.
12. despair n. complete loss of hope.
Exercise 2. Recalling the Content (True/False)
1. A young woman was grieving. (F – A young man was grieving… para. 1-)
2. The young man could see his maiden wife all of the time. (F-”…I shall be invisible to you as long as the sun shines.”- para. 2)
3. The wife lead her husband to the Land of the Dead. (T-…moving into the foothills of the mountains, leading the young husband ever westward toward the Land of the Dead. – para. 3)
4. The only visible sign of his wife was a red feather. (T “… tie this red eagle feather to my hair. It will be visible in daylight”- para. 2)
5. The man never grew tired following his wife. (F- He grew tireder, and tireder, and finally was totally exhausted… para. 4)
6. The trail lead him to a deep chasm, that he could not cross. (T-One day the trail led to a deep, almost bottomless chasm, and as the husband came to the edge, the red feather began to float away para. 5)
7. A tiny bird saved him from the chasm. (F- when a tiny squirrel scooted up the cliff chattering: ..para. 6)
8. The feather lead him to a deep lake that he could not cross. (T-At last the feather led him to a large, dark deep lake, and the feather plunged into the water to disappear below the surface.-para. 7)
9. The husband saw an eagle. (F-He looked up and saw an owl…para. 8)
10. He was told to drink tea if he wanted to see his wife again. (F-“Well, then” said the owl, “ this is a sleep medicine, that will make you fall into a deep sleep…para. 8)
Exercise 3 Questions for Reflection and Discussion
(Students’ choice)
3. Compare the first Zuni myth (Coyote Steals the Sun and Moon) with this one (The Spirit Wife). What are some differences between the two? What are some similarities?
Note: Students could create a Venn diagram for question number 3. Differences Coyote: the main characters are animals; the earth has not been created yet. Spirit wife: the main characters are people; the earth has been created. Similarities: both have animal deities; both have sad endings with a moral.
